720p Vs 1080i HDTV

Is 720p vs 1080i worth being concerned about? Yes and no. If you're a consumer looking for a new TV, you can happily ignore the 720p vs 1080i debate because every TV which is described as HDTV or HDTV Ready is required to support both formats.

NOTE: You should be aware though that lots of TVs which support 1080i have fewer than 1080 lines and so scale the 1080 signal down. That's not a huge issue as even scaled down 1080i is far ahead of a regular NTSC signal. It is worth bearing in mind that more expensive HDTVs tend to have better scalers than cheaper ones, and this may be an issue.

Programming

However, for broadcasters it's a live issue. Should they broadcast 1080 lines of interlaced video or 720 lines of progressive scan? They could just broadcast two signals, one in each format, but that would use up a huge chunk of bandwidth and be hugely expensive for very little gain.

720p Vs 1080i HDTV

To answer the question, it's important to understand the difference between 720p vs 1080i. A 720p signal is made up of 720 horizontal lines. Each frame is displayed in its entirety on-screen for 1/30th of a second. This is know as progressive scan (hence the 'p')The quality is like watching 30 photographic images a second on TV. A 1080i signal comprises 1080 horizontal lines but all the lines are not displayed on-screen simultaneously. Instead, they are interlaced (hence the 'i'), ie every other lines is displayed for 1/60th of a second and then the alternate lines are displayed for 1/60th of a second. So, the frame rate is still 30 frames per second, but each frame is split into two fields, which your brain then puts together subconsciously.

Most of the time interlacing works fine, but for fast moving images, such as sports like baseball and hockey it can cause problems which manifest themselves as a 'stepping' effect on-screen. Progressive scan signals don't have this problem and so are better suited to sports.

ESPN puts it like this: 'Progressive scan technology produces better images for the fast moving orientation of sports television. Simply put, with 104 mph fastballs in baseball and 120 mph shots on goal in hockey, the line-by-line basis of progressive scan technology better captures the inherent fast action of sports. For ESPN, progressive scan technology makes perfect sense.'

Bottom line? For us, as consumers 720p vs 1080i is not a debate worth worrying about, so you can relax and focus on all the other criteria on your list when you buy your next HDTV.

720p Vs 1080i HDTV

Kenny Hemphill runs Discounted Web Hosting and is the editor and publisher of The HDTV Tuner - a guide to the kit, the technology and the programming on HDTV.

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Causes Of Software Project Failure

Most software projects fail completely or partial failures because a small number of projects meet all their requirements. These requirements can be the cost, schedule, quality, or requirements objectives. According to many studies, failure rate of software projects is between 50% - 80%. This essay is a compilation of failure causes of software development projects; this essay summarises several areas that play a vital role in software project failure.

So, what really is the reason for software project failure? The sad fact is that software projects fail because we do not recognize that good engineering principles should be applied to software projects just as they are to building office buildings. We try to defend ourselves by saying that software construction is "different".

Programming

One of the most serious complaints against software failure is the inability
to estimate with acceptable accuracy the cost, resources, and schedule necessary
for a software project. Conventional assessment methods have always produced
positive results which contribute to the too well-known cost infested and
schedule slippage.

Causes Of Software Project Failure

Over the last 20 years many cost and schedule estimation techniques have been
used with mixed sensation due to restrictions of the assessment models. A major
part of the estimations failure can be due to a lack of understanding of the
software development process and the effect of that method used in the project
plan, schedule and cost estimates.

Failure Case Studies
Below are few of the case studies considered which will be analysed to fetch
the main reasons of failure of the software system.

Northumbria University developed accounting software to manage its day to day
business. The project could not come up with the desired results and failed to
meet the deadlines. Te investigations showed that the basic project management
procedures were not followed. This case study is referenced in this essay at
different points where necessary. [1]

Thai subsidiary (SMTL) of a Hong Kong-based multinational company (SMHK)
engaged in the manufacturing of electronic equipment. They implemented an
integrated software package; which was a failure at the several factors. These
factors were mostly management related. Such as a poor fit between the business
process assumptions inscribed in the software and the business processes in SMTL,
poor leadership at different levels, cultural differences, organizational
environment, and poor human resource management.

St John's Hospital is a District General Hospital provides medical and
nursing services, which includes both general surgery and medicine.All these
services are supported by diagnostic imaging, laboratory, ambulance, pharmacy
and therapy services, which are all on site. As the major hospital in a tourist
area, it deals with many visitors in the holiday season, generating a large
amount of non-booked admissions work.

Software Management & Leadership
It has been shown repeatedly, that effective leadership is essential for successful IT implementation (Klenke, 1994). A leader must also have cultural sensitivity, communication skills, creativity, ability to delegate, and the ability to develop and retain human resources (Luthans, 1994). The software manager at (SMHK) was a western, where as the lower managers were Eastern. So there was a cultural clash going on always. Jack (Manager) always try to introduce creative thoughts. And most of the time the lower management could not do them. Hence there was a clash going on all the time.

Employees also felt that management hardly ever "listened" to their concerns
or attempted to address them. Consequently, many employees were eager to leave
the company, and did so as soon as they found alternate opportunities in other
companies.

Project Planning & Scheduling
Project planning means creating work breakdown, and then allocate responsibilities to the developers over time. Project planning consists of construction of various tasks, timelines and essential pathways including Gantt charts and PERT charts and different written plans for various situations.

It is quite usual in software development process to work backward from the
project end date which results in complete software project failure. It is
impossible that a project can be completed efficiently from the planning stage
to the implementation stage.

Allocation of roles and responsibilities has to be clearly defined, and it
becomes crucial while hiring the stall from outside. University's higher
management failed to apply the basic project management rules which laid to the
project failure.

Proper scheduling is also required before the start of the project. It
includes the time scheduling, teams scheduling. Project managers don't know what
they have to plan and schedule. They just only tell the programmer what to do
and the programmers can come up with a proper solution.

The development was moved to a new office and the office was not fully
equipped with the proper infrastructure. As time is also a big factor in success
or failure of a project. So it delayed the development process and contributed
towards the project failure. Infrastructure was not fully scheduled and
management team didn't know where and how the project development will be
started.

The top secret of a winning software development project is to control the
quality up and lower the risk. Contingency plan is also the part of planning. In
case things went wrong then this plan can be followed to lower the affect of the
failure of project. Same was the case with university's accounting software. The
management team had no such a contingency plan nor did they evaluate the risk
involved in the development of the new system. So it caused more trouble without
the backup system or backup plan.

The management just try to follow the methodologies like SDLC or RAD, but don't know which methodology to use and at which time should apply the right technique.

Cost Estimation
Cost estimation is mainly involved the cost of effort to produce the software project. But it's not limited to the effort only. It also includes the hardware and software cost, training the employees and customer, travelling to the customer, networking and communication costs. Cost estimation should be done as a part of the software process model.

Cost estimation needs to be done well before the start of the project
development. Failure of the budgeting for the cost of the project results in
complete disaster. As stated above the infrastructure cost, development tools
cost and hardware cost also needs to be estimated first.

Same thing happened to university's accounting system development. They
purchased the new system well with out any serious estimation of the cost and
the income sources.

Below are the reasons why wrong cost estimation is done.

Inappropriate estimation methodology
Another reason would be the use of an inappropriate cost estimation methodology. Not a single methodology is better than other. Every methodology has its own strong and weak points which should be considered. Dr. Barry Boehm's book Software Engineering Economics lists seven estimation methodologies. One or more of these methodologies can be used to estimate the cost of a project

"Good suggestion is that more than one software cost estimation methodology
should be used for accurate estimation".

Cost estimation tools
There are many drawbacks in manual cost estimation. This technique is almost obsolete now. These days successful cost estimation includes the use of appropriate commercial software cost estimating tool.

Good software estimating tools do not always guarantee reliable software
estimates. Wrong input of the software size will result in wrong estimate.
Estimation software also needs to be customised for the specific need of
organization. These customisations require the data from the past projects as
input for the tool to estimate.

There are number of reasons these tools can return the wrong estimate.

Choosing the right estimation tool
Choice of a right estimation tool is necessary for the right estimation. The tool is not capable of handling the input and thus it can come up with the wrong estimate and hence cause the software project to fail.

Ease of customisation
As mentioned above the selected tool must be customisable according to the organisation needs, so that the organization can customise it according to the needs and past project data.

Easy to use and learn
The cost estimation tool should be easy to use and learn. It must include help and examples, simple and straight forward user interface. It must require less training to learn the system and inputs should be well defined.

Accurate Estimation
The estimation tool must have the capability to analyse all the parameters and come up with the accurate estimation for the cost.

Risk Management
Risk management is an important factor towards software project failure if it's not managed timely and effectively. As nothing can be predicted that what will happen in future so we have to take the necessary steps in the present to take any uncertain situation in the future. Risk management means dealing with a concern before it becomes a crisis.

Risk Identification

According to the Universal risk Project there are two types of conditions which can be a symbol of as risk.

IF-THEN Statements "IF technology is not available, THEN we will not meet the requirement" "IF we cannot hire sufficient qualified software engineers, THEN we cannot meet the planned development schedule

Given the "condition", there is a likelihood that the "consequence" will occur "Given that this specific test fails (the CONDITION), the CONSEQUENCE is that the planned schedule will slip"


Project managers have to identify the areas where the risk can be and how it
can affect the development of the project. Risk can be of technical nature or
non technical. Project managers needs to be aware of both the risks. Most of the
projects managers are not good in either of the side. A good manager with
programming skills can be good in identifying the technical risk but not in non
technical risk.

Risk Analysis
After the risk is identified there is a need to make the categories of that risk. Risk analysis is the process of examining the project results and deliverables after the risk analysis and applying the technique to lower the risk. After risk analysis is complete, the proper risk analysis plan needs to be made to cope with any uncertain situation. First identified risks are categorized and make the hierarchy of those risks. At this point the risk is classified as the positive or negative risks.

Risk Prioritization
After the risk is analyzed, the next step is to priorities the risk. At first focus on the most sever risk first; and les sever later. These risk factors can worked from time to time so that the final project out come is free of risk. So most of the time project management team fails to identify the sever risk and work on the less sever risk. This often results in the form of a crisis.

Risk Avoidance
Dealing with the risk is an art. Some times the management takes the projects with out identifying the proper risk involved in the project. So an experienced manager will take the project after proper risk analysis and avoid any risk involved in the project.

Risk control
Managing the risk to achieve the desired results and deliverables is done through controlling the risk at its best. This is a pure intuitive process and depends on the experience of the project management team, or risk already managed in past projects which were done by the same organization.

Conclusion
This essay has presented three basic factors which can cause the software development project to fail. Planning & Scheduling, cost estimation and risk management. All of these factors are to be considered at the management level and then transferred to the lower management.

Planning & Scheduling comes at first, good planning and scheduling makes the
strong foundation for the software project. Project planning consists of
construction of various tasks, timelines and essential pathways including Gantt
charts and PERT charts and different written plans for various situations. If
these factors are not taken into part then the software may encounter problems
during the development and the final product will be a failure.

Cost estimation depends on the budget of the project, customer type and the
size and effort to be put in the project. Cost estimations are done many times
during the life cycle of a project. It affects the project in many ways, wrong
estimation complete failure, affect the good-will of the organisation if the
costs are not covered, stake holders are affected and waste of resources.

Managing the risk is a practical approach for decreasing the ambiguity and
possible loss related with a software development project. Potential measures
can be considered as opportunity-focused (positive risk) if their consequences
are favourable, or as threat-focused (negative risk) if their consequences are
unfavourable.

Causes Of Software Project Failure

[1]. infoNet is an Advisory Service funded by JISC retrieved on November 26 2006 from http://www.jiscinfonet.ac.uk/ Jones, Capers, Patterns of Software Systems Failure and Success, International Thompson Computer Press, Boston, Mass., 1996. Boehm, B.W., “Software Risk Management: Principles and Practices”, IEEE Software, January 1991 http://sunset.usc.edu/classes/cs510_2003/notes/risk.pdf “Software Risk Management: Back to Basics – The Top 10 (or so) Software Risks”, Software Technology Conference, 2003

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Create Computer Games - Get Started on Creating Your Own Virtual Worlds

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History of the Media, Radio, and Television

When were the forms of media created? When did advertising first show up? Who owns the media?

Creation of the various forms of media

Programming

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History of the Media, Radio, and Television

Newspapers & Magazines ~ 1880

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Movies ~ 1910

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Television ~ 1945

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Cable Television ~ 1980's

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Satellite Television, Internet, Digital Communication ~ End of the 20th century

In 1920, radio was first developed, primarily for use by the military, strictly for sendingHistory of the Media - Old Radios messages from one location to another. David Sternoff, the then-president of RCA, first had the idea to sell radio sets to consumers, or what were then called radio receivers. However, consumers needed a reason to buy radios, so RCA was the first to set up radio stations all over the country. Between 1920 and 1922, 400 radio stations were set up, starting with KBKA in Pittsburgh. Stations were also set up by universities, newspapers, police departments, hotels, and labor unions.

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By 1923, there were 600 radio stations across the United States, and million worth of sets had been sold.

The biggest difference in radio before and after 1923 was that the first advertising was not heard on the radio until 1923. RCA at the time was made up of four companies:

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AT&T

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General Electric

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United Fruit

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Westinghouse

United Fruit was one of the first global corporations, and one of the first to advertise on the radio. The AT&T division of RCA first thought about selling time on the air to companies, which marked the start of "toll broadcasting." WEAF was the first station to operate this way, causing widespread outrage, and accusation of "polluting the airwaves."

Because of this controversy, the practice of selling advertising time was called "trade name publicity." Sponsors linked their name with a program on the air, rather than advertising a specific product in a 30 second "commercial" as we know it today.

Why did AT&T decide to experiment with charging companies for air time?

AT&T was not making any money from broadcasting at the time since they only made transmitters, not receivers. They only made money when new radio stations bought the equipment required to broadcast. They did not make money from consumers buying radios.

AT&T also started the practice of paying performers for their time on the air, rather than only volunteers, which was standard practice for radio content up until that point.

The first radio network

In 1926, RCA set up the first radio network, NBC. They decided it was more effective and efficient to produce shows in New York City, and then link the main radio station with stations all across the country, connected by AT&T (another RCA company) phone lines. (Now television networks are linked by satellite to their affiliates).

This was the beginning of the network affiliates system. The ideal network makes sure everyone in the country is capable of listening to their signal. NBC at the time had two philosophies:

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Radio content was a "public service," whose function was to sell radios.

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Radio content was designed to generate income from advertising.

History of the Media In 1927, the second network was formed. It was CBS, started by William Paley. Paley was the first to think that networks could make money strictly from advertising, not even getting involved in the sales of radios. Like AT&T, CBS did not make radios. From the start, they made their money from selling advertising.

The rising of radio networks caused the Radio Act of 1927 to be passed, which established the FRC, or what is now known as the FCC, to allocate broadcast licenses. The need for such an organization was brought on by the fact that airwaves are limited resources, and broadcasting itself is a scarce public resource. By the 1930's, the structure of radio have been set by the commercial format, although advertising never dominated radio like it would television later on.

In the 1920's and '30's, radio programs were divided into two groups. Sponsored shows, which had advertisers, and unsponsored shows, which did not. The radio station paid for the unsponsored shows. The sponsored shows, on the other hand, were created entirely by the company sponsoring the show; advertisers were totally in charge of the radio station's content. The content became advertising. Radio set the precedent for television, in that the same companies that controlled radio early on went on to control television.

Soon thereafter, television inherited the structure of radio. In the '40's, during the rise of television, RCA also held a monopoly on all television sets sold. By 1945-1955, advertising had taken over all of television. Television was organized around the premise of selling things. The entire television industry was creating a political atmosphere of suspicion and fear. Senator Joseph McCarthy, the founder of McCarthyism, which was based on the fear of Communism, and the HUAC (House Un-American Activities Committee, began to question people involved in television about their beliefs and associations.

What affected television in its early stages?

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Politics (McCarthyism / HUAC).

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Blacklists: From almost the inception of television, many writers, directors, and actors were considered to be pro-Communist and/or un-American.

Certain topics were totally off-limits at the time for television, particularly issues of race relations in the 1960's. Overall, networks were not happy with the political situation for television in the 1960's, both in terms of the blacklists, and of the fact that when every show had one sponsor, that sponsor controlled the entire program. Networks preferred to control the program, by way of moving to multiple sponsors/advertisers, where networks would retain control of the show, and advertisers would buy time in between the programming.

In the 1950's, networks decided to eliminate the practice of sponsors controlling the shows with a move to spot selling, or advertisements between programs, as we know it today. What caused the move to spot selling?

1.

Discovery of fraud in the quiz shows on television. Quiz shows were extremely popular at the time, and were liked by the networks, the sponsors, and the viewers alike. It turned out, however, that quiz shows were largely fixed. Charles Van Doren on "21" became a huge star due to his repeated wins, until it came out that the whole thing had been fixed. In the case of "The ,000 Question," the owner of Revlon was personally hand-selecting the winners and losers on the show.

2.

It was becoming financially difficult for just one advertiser to support an entire show.

Around this same time came the inception of ratings to measure a show's popularity. Ratings, quite simply, measure the number of people watching a show. To understand why ratings are so important, it's crucial to understand how the television industry works, through three questions, and their respective answers:

1.

Who owns television? [The networks]

2.

What is sold on television? [Viewer's time, not television shows]

3.

Who are the customers of television? [Advertisers, not viewers]

This might be a counterintuitive concept for some. The networks, which own television, areHistory of the Media - Old Television the buyers of shows, not the sellers. On the other hand, they sell our eyeballs, so to speak, to advertisers. Networks want the maximum possible profit from buying and selling time, both viewers' time, and advertisers' time.

The primary measure of television ratings, which determine the price of that time being bought and sold, is AC Nielsen, an independent company which provides information as to who watches what on television. Currently, about 4,000 households are used to represent the national viewing of television. In the 1980's, only 1,200 households were used. Some households have an electronic device installed on their television which tracks what they watch, while others keep a diary of viewing habits.

There are two measures for determining a show's audience. One is the rating, and the other is the share.

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Rating: Percentage of total homes with televisions tuned into a particular show.

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Share: Percentage of those watching television at a particular time who are tuned into a particular show.

The share is always greater than the rating. Ratings are more important for advertisers, and share is more important to the networks.

Example:

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Total households with televisions: 150 million

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Total households watching television at 8pm on Monday nights: 90 million

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Total households watching American Idol at 8pm on Monday nights: 45 million

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Therefore: Rating: 30, Share: 50

It's important to note how many factors can skew the results. Shows cost producers much more than the networks typically pay them for those shows. The way for producers to make money is by getting the networks to renew the show, in order to have a shot at making money from syndication on other channels, also knows as reruns. That is the case when individual stations (say for example, the Miami affiliate of ABC wants to carry Seinfeld), buy the rights to a show from the producers of that show. Shows that last only one season, for the most part, lose millions of dollars. One of the most important factors in whether shows will be renewed or not is their rating.

This brings us to how ratings can be skewed. For example, if a show has a 20 share, and it needs a 25 share to be renewed for another season, what might the producers do? In principle, they need to convince another 5% of the people watching television when their show is on to watch their show; this is no simple task, as that involves convincing millions of people. However, since the ratings are based on those 4,000 Nielsen households, that means that they could convince just 200 Nielsen households to watch their show, which would increase the share from 20 to 25. This is why Nielsen households must be kept totally secret from the networks. When the Nielsen households have leaked to the networks, one way which they got people to watch their show was by offering viewers a small sum of money for filling out a survey about a commercial which they were told would play only during a particular show. Since they had to watch that channel while their show was on, this would boost the share.

Once ratings are determined, advertising prices are set by two factors:

* The size of the audience.

* The demographics (income, age, gender, occupation, etc) of the audience.

In short, the job of television programs is to collect our time as a product, which they then sell to advertisers. Programs have to support the advertising, delivering viewers in the best possible state of mind for buying when the time for the commercials comes, which brings us to the Golden Age of Television.

The 1950's are considered the "Golden Age of Television." During this time, something called the "Anthology Series," where different actors each week took part in a show gained History of the Media - I Love Lucypopularity across the board...that is, with everyone except for advertisers. The anthology series format was not right for advertisers, as it covered topics which involved psychological confrontations which did not leave the viewers in the proper state of mind for buying the products shown to them between program segments. The subject matter of the anthology series was of the type that undermined the ads, almost making them seem fraudulent.

This brought up the question of what to network executives actually want shows to do? The answer is not to watch a program that makes them feel good, makes them laugh, or excites them, but rather to watch the television for a set amount of time. With so many new shows being proposed, standards began to be intentionally, or unintentionally, laid out for what shows could and couldn't do. Risks could only be taken at the beginning and/or end of shows. Laugh tracks were conceived to tell the audience when to laugh. Programs began being tested with audiences prior to being put on television and/or radio. Show writers now had to write shows that would test well.

Naturally, this caused many of the same elements and themes to appear in all shows. This was the beginning of recombinant television culture, where the same elements are endlessly repeated, recombined, and mixed.

This same culture is what perpetuated the idea that people watch television, not specific shows. While people certainly choose to watch certain shows instead of others, people less commonly choose to watch television instead of other things. People watch television. Regardless of what was on, television viewing rates were extremely stable.

History of the Media, Radio, and Television

David Pakman is editor/adminstrator of politics and media website Hear the Issues ([http://www.heartheissues.com]), a website frequented and praised by many mainstream journalist and pundits.

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Understanding Programming

A programming language is written text (also known as code) used to instruct a computer on what duties and tasks it must do. An example is Visual Basic, this language was designed for programs in the Microsoft Office family such as Outlook, Word, Excel and Access. If you have had any programming experience in the past, than you know code looks like. If you don't have any experience than here is a made up example:

Private Sub someFunction()

Programming

Set ftp = New function

Understanding Programming

End Sub

If this is the first time seeing something like this than you are probably very confused. To successfully program, you must have a general understanding of a language. This way you are able to correctly write code that the computer can understand and execute.

Keeping this in mind you must be aware that no one is born on this earth already knowing a language. It takes time, effort and practice just like anything else to perfect it. For some, learning a new language can look very overwhelming. Often people wonder why you would want to learn something so silly. This is until they realize the power and convenience of automation. Programming can turn manual daunting tasks into something you never have to think about again.

There are always long ways around programming. Sure you could do everything manually, but why would you want to spend countless extra hours doing tasks that programming can do for you? 

When you finish writing your first piece of basic code it may not do anything at all. This sounds discouraging, but remember you must built up and take small steps at a time and eventually you will create awesome work. You shouldn't have expectations that you will be able to master a language in just a little practice.

Understanding Programming

Jonathan has a passion for computers, Search Engine Optimization, and Internet Marketing. Visit his site at http://www.bedrailsfortoddlers.com/ which helps people find bed rails for toddlers and information about bed rails for toddlers.

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How To Understand Cross-Cultural Analysis

Cross-cultural analysis could be a very perplexing field to understand with many different viewpoints, aims and concepts. The origins of cross-cultural analysis in the 19th century world of colonialism was strongly grounded in the concept of cultural evolution, which claimed that all societies progress through an identical series of distinct evolutionary stages.

The origin of the word culture comes from the Latin verb colere = "tend, guard, cultivate, till". This concept is a human construct rather than a product of nature. The use of the English word in the sense of "cultivation through education" is first recorded in 1510. The use of the word to mean "the intellectual side of civilization" is from 1805; that of "collective customs and achievements of a people" is from 1867. The term Culture shock was first used in 1940.

Programming

How do we define culture?

How To Understand Cross-Cultural Analysis

There are literally hundreds of different definitions as writers have attempted to provide the all-encompassing definition.

Culture consists of language, ideas, beliefs, customs, taboos, codes, institutions, tools, techniques, works of art, rituals, ceremonies and symbols. It has played a crucial role in human evolution, allowing human beings to adapt the environment to their own purposes rather than depend solely on natural selection to achieve adaptive success. Every human society has its own particular culture, or sociocultural system. (Adapted from source: Encyclopaedia Britannica)

Generally culture can be seen as consisting of three elements:

Values - Values are ideas that tell what in life is considered important. Norms - Norms consists of expectations of how people should behave in different situations. Artefacts - Things or material culture - reflects the culture's values and norms but are tangible and manufactured by man.

Origins and evolution of Cross-cultural analysis
The first cross-cultural analyzes done in the West, were by anthropologists like Edward Burnett Tylor and Lewis H Morgan in the 19th century. Anthropology and Social Anthropology have come a long way since the belief in a gradual climb from stages of lower savagery to civilization, epitomized by Victorian England. Nowadays the concept of "culture" is in part a reaction against such earlier Western concepts and anthropologists argue that culture is "human nature," and that all people have a capacity to classify experiences, encode classifications symbolically and communicate such abstractions to others.

Typically anthropologists and social scientists tend to study people and human behavior among exotic tribes and cultures living in far off places rather than do field work among white-collared literate adults in modern cities. Advances in communication and technology and socio-political changes started transforming the modern workplace yet there were no guidelines based on research to help people interact with other people from other cultures. To address this gap arose the discipline of cross-cultural analysis or cross-cultural communication. The main theories of cross-cultural communication draw from the fields of anthropology, sociology, communication and psychology and are based on value differences among cultures. Edward T. Hall, Geert Hofstede, Fons Trompenaars, Shalom Schwartz and Clifford Geertz are some of the major contributors in this field.

How the social sciences study and analyze culture

Cultural anthropologists focus on symbolic culture whereas archaeologists focus on material and tangible culture. Sociobiologists study instinctive behavior in trying to explain the similarities, rather than the differences between cultures. They believe that human behavior cannot be satisfactorily explained entirely by 'cultural', 'environmental' or 'ethnic' factors. Some sociobiologists try to understand the many aspects of culture in the light of the concept of the meme, first introduced by Richard Dawkins in his 1976 book The Selfish Gene. Dawkins suggests the existence of units of culture - memes - roughly analogous to genes in evolutionary biology. Although this view has gained some popular currency, other anthropologists generally reject it.

Different types of cross-cultural comparison methods

Nowadays there are many types of Cross-cultural comparisons. One method is comparison of case studies. Controlled comparison among variants of a common derivation is another form of comparison. Typically anthropologists and other social scientists favor the third type called Cross-cultural studies, which uses field data from many societies to examine the scope of human behaviour and to test hypotheses about human behavior and culture.

Controlled comparison examines similar characteristics of a few societies while cross-cultural studies uses a sufficiently large sample that statistical analysis can be made to show relationships or lack of relationships between certain traits in question. The anthropological method of holocultural analysis or worldwide cross-cultural analysis is designed to test or develop a proposition through the statistical analysis of data on a sample of ten or more non literate societies from three or more geographical regions of the world. In this approach, cultural traits are taken out of the context of the whole culture and are compared with cultural traits in widely diverse cultures to determine patterns of regularities and differences within the broad base of the study.

Aims of cross-cultural analysis

Cross-cultural communication or inter cultural communication looks at how people from different cultural backgrounds try to communicate. It also tries to produce some guidelines, which help people from different cultures to better communicate with each other.

Culture has an interpretative function for the members of a group, which share that particular culture. Although all members of a group or society might share their culture, expressions of culture-resultant behaviour are modified by the individuals' personality, upbringing and life-experience to a considerable degree. Cross-cultural analysis aims at harnessing this utilitarian function of culture as a tool for increasing human adaptation and improving communication.

Cross-cultural management is seen as a discipline of international management focusing on cultural encounters, which aims to discover tools to handle cultural differences seen as sources of conflict or miscommunication.

How laypersons see culture

It is a daunting challenge to convey the findings of research and field work and discuss cross-cultural issues in diverse contexts such as corporate culture, workplace culture and inter cultural competency as laypeople tend to use the word 'culture' to refer to something refined, artistic and exclusive to a certain group of "artists" who function in a separate sphere than ordinary people in the workplace. Some typical allusions to culture:

Culture is the section in the newspaper where they review theatre, dance performances or write book reviews etc.

Culture is what parents teach their kids and grandparents teach their grandchildren.

"You don't have any culture," is what people say to you when you put your feet on the table at lunchtime or spit in front of guests.

"They just have a different culture," people say about those whose behaviour they don't understand but have to tolerate.

Different models of cross-cultural analysis

There are many models of cross-cultural analysis currently valid. The 'Iceberg' and the 'Onion' models are widely known. The popular 'Iceberg model' of culture developed by Selfridge and Sokolik, 1975 and W.L. French and C.H. Bell in 1979, identifies a visible area consisting of behaviour or clothing or symbols and artifacts of some form and a level of values or an invisible level.

Trying to define as complex a phenomenon as culture with just two layers proved quite a challenge and the 'Onion' model arose. Geert Hofstede (1991) proposed a set of four layers, each of which includes the lower level or is a result of the lower level. According to this view, 'culture' is like an onion that can be peeled, layer-by layer to reveal the content. Hofstede sees culture as "the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another."

Cross-cultural analysis often plots 'dimensions' such as orientation to time, space, communication, competitiveness, power etc., as complimentary pairs of attributes and different cultures are positioned in a continuum between these.

Hofstede dimensions to distinguish between cultures

The five dimensions Hofstede uses to distinguish between national cultures are:

Power distance, which measures the extent to which members of society accept how power is distributed unequally in that society. Individualism tells how people look after themselves and their immediate family only in contrast with Collectivism, where people belong to in-groups (families, clans or organizations) who look after them in exchange for loyalty. The dominant values of Masculinity, focussing on achievement and material success are contrasted with those of Femininity, which focus on caring for others and quality of life. Uncertainty avoidance measures the extent to which people feel threatened by uncertainty and ambiguity and try to avoid these situations. Confucian dynamism. This Long-term versus Short-term Orientation measured the fostering of virtues related to the past, i.e., respect for tradition, importance of keeping face and thrift.

Trompenaars dimensions to distinguish between cultures
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1997) adopt a similar onion-like model of culture. However, their model expands the core level of the very basic two-layered model, rather than the outer level. In their view, culture is made up of basic assumptions at the core level. These 'basic assumptions' are somewhat similar to 'values' in the Hofstede model.

Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner use seven dimensions for their model of culture:

Universalism vs Particularism (what is more important - rules or relationships?) Individualism vs Communitarianism (do we function in a group or as an individual?) Neutral vs Emotional (do we display our emotions or keep them in check?) Specific vs Diffuse (how far do we get involved?) Achievement vs Ascription (do we have to prove ourselves to gain status or is it given to us just because we are a part of a structure?) Attitude to Time Past- / present- / future-orientatedness
Sequential time vs Synchronic time(do we do things one at a time or several things at once?)

Criticism of current models
One of the weaknesses of cross-cultural analysis has been the inability to transcend the tendency to equalize culture with the concept of the nation state. A nation state is a political unit consisting of an autonomous state inhabited predominantly by a people sharing a common culture, history, and language or languages. In real life, cultures do not have strict physical boundaries and borders like nation states. Its expression and even core beliefs can assume many permutations and combinations as we move across distances.

There is some criticism in the field that this approach is out of phase with global business today, with transnational companies facing the challenges of the management of global knowledge networks and multicultural project teams, interacting and collaborating across boundaries using new communication technologies.

Some writers like Nigel Holden (2001) suggest an alternative approach, which acknowledges the growing complexity of inter- and intra-organizational connections and identities, and offers theoretical concepts to think about organizations and multiple cultures in a globalizing business context.

In spite of all the shortcomings and criticisms faced by the Hofstede model, it is very much favoured by trainers and researchers. There are two reasons for this. Firstly, it is a wonderful and easy to use tool to quantify cultural differences so that they can be discussed. Discussing and debating differences is after all the main method of training and learning. Secondly, Hofstede's research at IBM was conducted in the workplace, so Hofstede tools brings cross-cultural analysis closer to the business side of the workplace, away from anthropology, which is a matter for universities.

Bibliography and suggested reading:

Dawkins, Richard (1976). The Selfish Gene. Oxford University Press French, W.L. and C.H. Bell (1979). Organization development. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Hofstede, Geert "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind", 1997 Holden, Nigel 2001, Cross-Cultural Management: A Knowledge Management Perspective, Financial Times Management

How To Understand Cross-Cultural Analysis

Quotation adapted from The Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com

Rana Sinha is a cross-cultural trainer and author. He was born in India, studied and lived in many places and traveled in over 80 countries, acquiring cross-cultural knowledge and building an extensive network of professionals. He has spent many years developing and delivering Cross-cultural Training, Professional Communications skills, Personal Development and Management solutions to all types of organizations and businesses in many countries. He now lives in Helsinki, Finland and runs http://www.dot-connect.com, which specializes in human resource development as well as communication and management skills training with cross-cultural emphasis. Read his cross-cultural blog http://originalwavelength.blogspot.com

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Advantages of Mathematics

Many of us wondered about the advantages of Mathematics during our childhood days. Many of us were not able to comprehend the benefits of mathematics beyond the daily usage of calculating simple numbers. Let us see in detail what are some of the benefits of learning mathematics and marveling at this arduous subject at early age.

The importance of mathematics is two-fold, it is important in the advancement of science and two, it is important in our understanding of the workings of the universe. And in here and now it is important to individuals for personal development, both mentally and in the workplace.

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Mathematics equips pupils with a uniquely powerful set of tools to understand and change the world. These tools include logical reasoning, problem-solving skills, and the ability to think in abstract ways. Mathematics is important in everyday life, many forms of employment, science and technology, medicine, the economy, the environment and development, and in public decision-making.

Advantages of Mathematics

One should also be aware of the wide importance of Mathematics, and the way in which it is advancing at a spectacular rate. Mathematics is about pattern and structure; it is about logical analysis, deduction, calculation within these patterns and structures. When patterns are found, often in widely different areas of science and technology, the mathematics of these patterns can be used to explain and control natural happenings and situations. Mathematics has a pervasive influence on our everyday lives, and contributes to the wealth of the individual.

The study of mathematics can satisfy a wide range of interests and abilities. It develops the imagination. It trains in clear and logical thought. It is a challenge, with varieties of difficult ideas and unsolved problems, because it deals with the questions arising from complicated structures. Yet it also has a continuing drive to simplification, to finding the right concepts and methods to make difficult things easy, to explaining why a situation must be as it is. In so doing, it develops a range of language and insights, which may then be applied to make a crucial contribution to our understanding and appreciation of the world, and our ability to find and make our way in it.

Increasingly, employers are looking for graduates with strong skills in reasoning and problem solving - just the skills that are developed in a mathematics and statistics degree.

Let us look at a few examples. The computing industry employs mathematics graduates; indeed, many university computing courses are taught by mathematicians. Mathematics is used to create the complex programming at the heart of all computing. Also cryptography, a form of pure mathematics, is deployed to encode the millions of transactions made hourly via the Internet and when we use debit or credit cards. Mathematics and Computer Science is a popular degree choice, and four-year degrees with a placement in industry are also available. The latter give graduates plenty of relevant experience to increase their employability.

Mathematics led to the perfect ratios shown in Renaissance painting. The study of astronomy in the early times of its inception demanded the expansion of our understanding of mathematics and made possible such realizations as the size and weight of the earth, our distance from the sun, the fact that we revolve around it, and other discoveries that allowed us to move forward in our body of knowledge without which we would not have any of our modern marvels of technology.

The computer itself is a machine built upon the principles of mathematics, being an invention so important as to bring about an economic revolution of efficiency in data communication and processing.

Advantages of Mathematics

Shilpa Rao is an expert tutor in mental mathematics and has helped develop online math worksheets. Learn more about abacus mental math and vedic mental math [http://www.articlestonurture.com/Article/Advantages-of-Mathematics/6321].

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Watch Satellite TV on PC, TV or Cable TV

Watch satellite TV on PC, TV or cable TV? This is a question of choice but not on equal grounds since each have its strengths and weaknesses. According to a national wide survey, an average American probably spends more than 16% of his time in an entire year watching TV. This translates to about two months in a year which is more than half the time we spend on sleeping. Another staggering fact is more than two-thirds of American homes own more than three TV sets. TV is part of American culture. Discover what the differences are to help you decide whether to watch satellite TV on PC, TV or cable TV.

What are some of the differences? Should you watch satellite TV on PC, TV or cable TV?

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1. Locality and Accessibility

Watch Satellite TV on PC, TV or Cable TV

Cable TV tends to be well-received in built-up areas since it is not affected by terrains and weather. However, in places where cable technology has not reached, such as rural areas or some suburban districts, satellite TV is their choice. In fact, you can set up a satellite dish system to watch satellite TV on your TV from any part of the world so it has a worldwide appeal. Where you can have internet access, you can watch satellite TV on PC readily.

2. TV Reception

You should not have any problem to watch satellite TV channels with clarity as long as your satellite dish system is set up for clear line of sight with the satellites. High rise buildings are ideal places for such systems as the satellite has full view of the skies. Needless to say, cable TV is able to receive and display TV channel feeds with a certain degree of clarity. However, since the reception of satellite dish system depends on external conditions such as weather, it may be less reliable during different seasons of the year. Fortunately, you can overcome this if you watch satellite TV on PC. Watching PC satellite TV is not constrained by weather or nature elements since they receive their feeds via internet connections which is a highly reliable media portal.

3. Variety of TV Programs

Satellite TV is a clear winner in this. Since it is made to receive free-to-air broadcasts, you can practically watch any channel as long as your satellite dish system can cover it. Nowadays, you can even watch satellite TV on PC if you prefer not to touch a satellite dish. Even though cable TV has been working hard to secure more channels for their subscribers, it is still pretty self-limiting in the number of TV channels it can offer. With satellite TV, you get to watch worldwide TV channels from any country and in any language.

4. TV System Installation

When you watch satellite TV, there are in fact three options. Either you build your own satellite dish system to receive free-to-air broadcasts or you can take advantage of free equipment installation provided when you subscribe for monthly satellite TV program packages with the service providers. The third option which is a new one is to watch satellite TV on PC using software application and internet connection. This is simply the easiest way to watch satellite TV.

5. Pricing

Satellite TV has an unfair advantage over cable TV in this aspect. Cable TV providers have to pay heavier levies charged by the state governments since the infrastructural makeup is more complicated and intensive than satellite TV providers which are light in infrastructure. Capital costs for cable TV companies are higher and with the advent of digital TV becoming the next big thing, it is a matter of time when they have to upgrade those million miles of ground-embedded obsolete cables. This is why satellite TV providers are able to charge less for more. In fact, if you watch satellite TV on PC, you can do away with monthly subscriptions and expensive Do-It-Yourself (DIY) style dish systems since you only pay once for the PC satellite TV software.

So I certainly hope this article can help you in making a choice between satellite or cable TV. This article may be freely reprinted or distributed in its entirety in any ezine, newsletter, blog or website. The author's name, bio and website links must remain intact and be included with every reproduction.

Watch Satellite TV on PC, TV or Cable TV

Davion is a successful webmaster, author and fan of TV shows. Find out how you can watch satellite TV on PC instantly [http://watch-satellite-tv-on-pc.blogspot.com] and tune into hundreds of LIVE world channels of news, movies, music and kids program at Watch-Satellite-TV-On-PC.blogspot.com [http://watch-satellite-tv-on-pc.blogspot.com].

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How To Improve Hotel Customer Satisfaction With Lobby Television Programming

The hotel owner who does not provide lobby television programming is both ignoring a source of revenue for himself and doing his guests a disservice. Lobby televisions are found in three primary locations and can fulfill three very different functions.

1. Behind the counter

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Hotel guests appreciate hearing about the attractions and services that are offered in the local area. Advertisers are willing to pay to have that information disseminated to likely customers. A television displaying a combination of videos, pictures and digital signage is the perfect way to please both.

How To Improve Hotel Customer Satisfaction With Lobby Television Programming

These televisions can offer attractive and interesting multimedia displays about:

local activities,

high-end retail stores

tourist attractions

restaurants

limo and taxi services

airport services

in-house restaurant menus and hours

additional hotel services

All of this information can be offered silently and tastefully so that guests are not distracted by the advertising messages while they are interacting with hotel staff. These messages can be activated and updated by hotel management.

2. The waiting area

Guests may have to wait their turn to be served in the area around the counter. While they are there, they are standing and often have an uncomfortable situation with luggage or children to control. They will perceive a shorter waiting time when they are watching an entertaining show. They will feel greater overall satisfaction with the hotel when they have spent their waiting time with a pleasant distraction. It is important to have carefully selected programming for this area. The guests won't be there long and will be more entertained if they see something short enough to watch from start to finish. That is why companies like Dish Business specialize in lobby TV packages that deliver this type of programming. This includes lobby TV stations that broadcast:

news

weather

lifestyle tips

human interest feature stories

3. Lounging area

Hotels with large lobbies sometime group furniture around a television and give guests the power to change stations. Here guests may enjoy watching longer shows. Management may prefer to choose a more expansive menu of television channels for these areas.

The time that guests spend in a hotel lobby often affects their overall feeling about the place. Guests who remember satisfactory experiences there are more likely to recommend the hotel to others and to come back themselves. And lobby television programming are just one way hotel management can keep customer satisfaction levels high. Are you doing everything you can to make sure your guests are happy in the lobby?

How To Improve Hotel Customer Satisfaction With Lobby Television Programming

Michel Stevens wanted to get satellite TV services for his business so he researched the best providers to find the right package. DISH Business can get you the packages and deals you want with DISH Network for hotels, apartments, restaurants, waiting rooms and much more.

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Why Some Married Women Cheat On Their Husbands

Marriages in our society today do not seem to mean nearly as much as they used to in the past, with divorce commonly being the first preferential choice in modifying a married couples problems or troubles. Individuals who exchange their vows of matrimony, are not only making a promise to their new partner, but also to God, and many people seem to take that vow very lightly.

Just as men have unremarkably done in the past, in recent years is has become increasingly more common for women to cheat on their husbands as well. Women share many of the assonant reasons for cheating on their spouse as men do, the only difference is that it has somewhat been more acceptable behavior for that of the male species, than it is of the female species. Just as a man who lies down with many women is often referred to as a stud, when a woman implements the same behavior in herself, she is considered nothing more than a paramour, whore, concubine or worse.

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Many women become unfaithful to their husbands out of revenge, and feel that if their husband is sleeping around, there is nothing to say that they themselves do not have the right to sleep around as well. Although it may feel great at first getting revenge, it truly fulfills no purpose, and can only aid in destroying what is left of the couple's marriage.

Why Some Married Women Cheat On Their Husbands

Women also tend to stray from their husbands when they are not getting enough attention from their husbands, whether it be mentally, physically or otherwise. Many women feel that they have become alienated from their husbands and no longer feel that there is any love or feelings between them, at least not coming from their husband's part. Depression and loneliness can lead an individual to do many things that they would never do had they been feeling like themselves.

Some women simply cheat on their husbands for the thrill of not getting caught, or the feeling that they are getting away with something. Often times it becomes an addiction for men and women alike, and seems to be uncontrollable until all is lost, including their marriage, their health, and many times their mental stability.

In closing, women cheat for exactly the same reasons that men do, and in either case, it is not physically safe to be sleeping around on your spouse, and risking losing your marriage, no matter how far lost you think your marriage may be. If you are that dead set on ending your marriage, go ahead and do it, before you start sleeping around, especially if you have children that will be hurt by your actions.

Why Some Married Women Cheat On Their Husbands

Article written by: Laura Fleenor - owner and webmaster of Articles 4 Me And U.com and Particle Articles.com [http://www.particlearticles.com]. Laura is also webmaster of Article Pyramid.com [http://www.articlepyramid.com]. Laura holds an AAS in Computer Programming, an AS in Information Technology, and a Certificate of Program Completion in Web Page Design/Publishing.

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